Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) :

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the first solid-state amplifier element and started  the solid-state electronics revolution. Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley, while at Bell Laboratories, invented it in 1948 as part of a post-war effort to replace vacuum tubes with solid-state devices. Solid-state rectifiers were already in use at the time and were preferred over vacuum diodes because of their smaller size, lower weight and higher reliability. A solid-state replacement for a vacuum triode was expected to yield similar advantages. The work at Bell Laboratories was highly successful and culminated in Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley receiving the Nobel Prize in 1956.

Their work led them first to the point-contact transistor and then to the bipolar junction transistor. They used germanium as the semiconductor of choice because it was possible to obtain high purity material. The extraordinarily large diffusion length of minority carriers in germanium provided functional structures despite the large dimensions of the early devices.

Since then, the technology has progressed rapidly. The development of a planar process yielded the first circuits on a chip and for a decade, bipolar transistor operational amplifiers, like the 741, and digital TTL circuits were for a long time the workhorses of any circuit designer.

The spectacular rise of the MOSFET market share during the last decade  has  compleelty removed the bipolar transistor from center stage. Almost all logic circuits,  microprocessor and memory chips contain exclusively MOSFETs.

Nevertheless, bipolar transistors remain important devices for ultra-high-speed discrete logic circuits such as emitter coupled logic (ECL), power-switching applications and in microwave power amplifiers. Heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) have emerged as the device of choice for cell phone amplifiers and other demanding applications.

In this chapter we first present the structure of the bipolar transistor and show how a three- layer structure with alternating n-type and p-type regions can provide current and voltage amplification. We then present the ideal transistor model and derive an expression for the current gain in the forward active mode of operation. Next, we discuss the non-ideal effects, the modulation of the base width and recombination in the depletion region of the base- emitter junction. A discussion of transit time effects, BJT circuit models, HBTs, BJT technology and bipolar power devices completes this chapter.

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Article by

St.Mary's Group

EEE Dept.

Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) :

If an SCR's gate is left floating (disconnected), it behaves exactly as a Shockley diode. It may be latched by break-over voltage or by exceeding the critical rate of voltage rise between anode and cathode, just as with the Shockley diode. Dropout is accomplished by reducing current until one or both internal transistors fall into cutoff mode, also like the Shockley diode. However, because the gate terminal connects directly to the base of the lower transistor, it may be used as an alternative means to latch the SCR. By applying a small voltage between gate and cathode, the lower transistor will be forced on by the resulting base current, which will cause the upper transistor to conduct, which then supplies the lower transistor's base with current so that it no longer needs to be activated by a gate voltage. The necessary gate current to initiate latch-up, of course, will be much lower than the current through the SCR from cathode to anode, so the SCR does achieve a measure of amplification.

This method of securing SCR conduction is called triggering, and it is by far the most common way that SCRs are latched in actual practice. In fact, SCRs are usually chosen so that their breakover voltage is far beyond the greatest voltage expected to be experienced from the power source, so that it can be turned on only by an intentional voltage pulse applied to the gate.

It should be mentioned that SCRs may sometimes be turned off by directly shorting their gate and cathode terminals together, or by "reverse-triggering" the gate with a negative voltage (in reference to the cathode), so that the lower transistor is forced into cutoff. I say this is "sometimes" possible because it involves shunting all of the upper transistor's  collector current past the lower transistor's base. This current may be substantial, making triggered shut-off of an SCR difficult at best. A variation of the SCR, called a Gate-Turn-Off thyristor, or GTO, makes this task easier. But even with a GTO, the gate current required to turn it off may be as much as 20% of the anode (load) current! The schematic symbol for a GTO is shown in the following illustration: (Figure below)

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Article by

St.Mary's Group

EEE Dept.

Synchronous Motors Principle of Operation

Synchronous Motors Principle of operation :

In order to understand the principle of operation of a synchronous motor, assume that the armature winding (laid out in the stator) of a 3-phase synchronous machine is connected to a suitable balanced 3-phase source and the field winding to a D.C source of rated voltage. The current flowing through the field coils will set up stationary magnetic poles of alternate North and South. On the other hand, the 3-phase currents flowing in the armature winding produce a rotating magnetic field rotating at synchronous speed. In other words there will be moving North and South poles established in the stator due to the 3-phase currents i.e. at any location in the stator there will be a North Pole at some instant of time and it will become a South Pole after a time period corresponding to half a cycle. (After a time = 1/2f , where f = frequency of the supply). Assume that the stationary South pole in the rotor is aligned with the North pole in the stator moving in clockwise direction at a particular instant of time, as shown in Figure below. These two poles get attracted and try to maintain this alignment (as per Lenz’s law) and hence the rotor pole tries to follow the stator pole as the conditions are suitable for the production of torque in the clockwise direction. However, the rotor cannot move instantaneously due to its mechanical inertia, and so it needs some time to move.

In the mean time, the stator pole would quickly (a time duration corresponding to half a cycle) change its polarity and becomes a South Pole. So the force of attraction will no longer be present and instead the like poles experience a force of Repulsion as shown in Figure below. In other words, the conditions are now suitable for the production of torque in the anticlockwise direction. Even this condition will not last longer as the stator pole.

Force of attraction between stator poles and rotor poles - resulting in production of torque in clockwise direction

Would again change to North pole after a time of 1/2f. Thus the rotor will experience an alternating force which tries to move it clockwise and anticlockwise at twice the frequency of the supply, i.e. at intervals corresponding to 1/2f seconds. As this duration is quite small compared to the mechanical time constant of the rotor, the rotor cannot respond and move in any direction. The rotor continues to be stationary only.

On the contrary if the rotor is brought to near synchronous speed by some external device say a small motor mounted on the same shaft as that of the rotor, the rotor poles get locked to the unlike poles in the stator and the rotor continues to run at the synchronous speed even if the supply to the motor is disconnected. Thus the synchronous rotor cannot start rotating on its own when the rotor and stator are supplied with rated voltage and frequency and hence the synchronous motor has no starting torque. So, some special provision has to be made either inside the machine or outside of the machine so that the rotor is brought to near about its synchronous speed. At that time, if the armature is supplied with electrical power, the rotor can pull into step and continue to run at its synchronous speed. Some of the commonly used methods for starting synchronous rotor are described in the following paragraph.

Would again change to North Pole after a time of 1/2f. Thus the rotor will experience an alternating force which tries to move it clockwise and anticlockwise at twice the frequency of the supply, i.e. at intervals corresponding to 1/2f seconds. As this duration is quite small compared to the mechanical time constant of the rotor, the rotor cannot respond and move in any direction. The rotor continues to be stationary only.

Force of repulsion between stator poles and rotor poles - resulting in production of torque in anticlockwise direction

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Article by

St.Mary's Group

EEE Dept.

Types of synchronous machines

Types of synchronous machines :

According to the arrangement of armature and field winding, the synchronous machines are classified as  rotating armature type or rotating field type.

In rotating armature type the armature winding is on the rotor and the field winding is on the stator. The generated emf or current is brought to the load via the slip rings. These type of generators are built only in small units.

In case of rotating field type generators field windings are on the rotor and the armature windings are on the stator. Here the field current is supplied through a pair of slip rings and the induced emf or current is supplied to the load via the stationary terminals.

Based on the type of the prime movers employed the synchronous generators are classified as

1. Hydrogenerators : The generators which are driven by hydraulic turbines are called hydrogenerators. These are run at lower speeds less than 1000 rpm.

2. Turbogenerators : These are the generators driven by steam turbines. These generators are run at very high speed of 1500rpm or above.

3. Engine driven Generators : These are driven by IC engines. These are run at aspeed less than 1500 rpm.

Construction of synchronous machines

1. Salient pole Machines : These type of machines have salient pole or projecting poles with concentrated field windings. This type of construction is for the machines which are driven by hydraulic turbines or Diesel engines.

2.Nonsalient pole or Cylindrical rotor or Round rotor Machines : These machines are having cylindrical smooth rotor construction with distributed field winding in slots. This type of rotor construction is employed for the machine driven by steam turbines.

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Article by

St.Mary's Group

EEE Dept.

About St.Mary's

St. Mary's Group of Institution Hyderabad was conceived by visionary leader Rev. K.V.K Rao. In the 1996, his vision gave raise to Joseph Sriharsha & Mary Indraja educational society, which currently has a strong foothold of 28 institutions offering programs to student community by providing quality education to urban, semi-urban & rural students of National & International. With 18 years of Academic Excellence in Technical Education it has an enormous student base of 17,000 students from 28 states and 24 countries. It has a standard of on par excellence with ISO 9001 : 2000 Certificate.

The group offers various courses like B.Tech, B. Pharma, B.Ed, Polytechnic, M.Tech, MCA, MBA, M. Pharma, and PGDM which is approved by ACITE, Programs Accredited by NBA and affiliated to JNTUH, JNTUK, OU, ANU & WBUT. The group has institutions at Hyderabad, Guntur, Kolkata and Prakasham.

St Mary's Group of Institutions, Hyderabad is well articulated campus located on the outskirts of Hyderabad city at Deshmukhi (v) on Vijayawada highway near Ramoji film city behind Mount Opera. The college is located amidst sprawling and greenery between the mountains and concrete laid approach roads within the campus with a congenial atmosphere for learning. The premises spread over 120 acres of land has open spaces like lawns, gardens, seating areas, supplement the grandeur of the environment and provide calm & peaceful atmosphere to conduct academic & research pursuits. St. Mary's is the First College of approved by AICTE for foreignstudent's admissions about 300 International students are pursuing various Technical Courses. It is only group to admit over 500 students every year from different States of India. The strength of St. Mary's is highly qualified and effective doctorate Faculty with rich Academic & Research experience.